Automated Functions: Their Potential for Impact Upon Maritime Sociotechnical Systems

The shipping industry is evolving towards an unknown and unpredictable future. There is speculation that in the next two decades the maritime industry will witness changes far exceeding those experienced over the past 100 years. The rapid development of artificial intelligence (AI), big data, automation and their impacts upon fully autonomous ships have the potential to transform the maritime industry. While change is inevitable in the maritime domain, automated solutions do not guarantee navigational safety, efficiency or improved seaway traffic management. Such dramatic change also calls for a more systematic approach to designing, evaluating and adopting new solutions into a system. Although intended to support operator decision-making needs and reduce operator workload, the outcomes might create unforeseen changes throughout other aspects of the maritime sociotechnical system. In the maritime industry, the human is seldom put first in technology design which paradoxically introduces human-automation challenges related to technology acceptance, use, trust, reliance and risk. The co-existence and challenges of humans and automation, as it pertains to navigation and navigational assistance, is explored throughout this licentiate.\ua0This thesis considers the Sea Traffic Management (STM) Validation Project \ua0as the context to examine low-level automation functions intended to enhance operator (both Navigators and Vessel Traffic Service Operators) navigational safety and efficiency. The STM functions are designed to improve information sharing between ships and from ship to shore such as: route sharing, enhanced monitoring, and route crosschecking. The licentiate is built on two different data collection efforts during 2017-2018 within the STM Validation project. The functions were tested on two user groups: Bridge Officers and Vessel Traffic Service Operators. All testing was completed in high-fidelity bridge simulators using traffic scenarios developed by subject matter experts.The aim of this licentiate is to study the impact of low levels of automation on operator behavior, and to explore the broader impact upon the maritime sociotechnical system. A mixed-method approach was selected to address these questions and included the following: observations, questionnaires, numerical assessment of ship behavior, and post-simulation debrief group sessions. To analyze and discuss the data, grounded theory, subject matter expert consultation, and descriptive statistics were used. The results point towards a disruption in current working practices for both ship and shore operators, and an uncertainty about the overall impact of low-level automation on operator behaviour. Using a sociotechnical systems approach, gaps have been identified related to new technology testing and implementation. These gaps relate to the overall preparedness of the shipping industry to manage the evolution towards smarter ships. The findings discussed in this licentiate aim to promote further discussions about a quickly evolving industry concerning automation integration in shipping and the potential impact on human performance in safety critical operations

Towards an understanding of the consequences of technology-driven decision support for maritime navigation

The maritime industry is undergoing a transformation driven by digitalization and connectivity. There is speculation that in the next two decades the maritime industry will witness changes far exceeding those experienced over the past 100 years. While change is inevitable in the maritime domain, technological developments do not guarantee navigational safety, efficiency, or improved seaway traffic management. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has adopted the Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) concept to define autonomy on a scale from Degrees 1 through 4.\ua0 Investigations into the impact of MASS on various aspects of the maritime sociotechnical system is currently ongoing by academic and industry stakeholders. However, the early adoption of MASS (Degree 1), which is classified as a crewed ship with decision support, remains largely unexplored. Decision support systems are intended to support operator decision-making and improve operator performance. In practice they can cause unintended changes throughout other elements of the maritime sociotechnical system. In the maritime industry, the human is seldom put first in technology design which paradoxically introduces human-automation challenges related to technology acceptance, use, trust, reliance, and risk. The co-existence of humans and automation, as it pertains to navigation and navigational assistance, is explored throughout this thesis. The aims of this thesis are (1) to understand how decision support will impact navigation and navigational assistance from the operator’s perspective and (2) to explore a framework to help reduce the gaps between the design and use of decision support technologies. This thesis advocates for a human-centric approach to automation design and development while exploring the broader impacts upon the maritime sociotechnical system. This work considers three different projects and four individual data collection efforts during 2017-2022. This research took place in Gothenburg, Sweden, and Warsash, UK and includes data from 65 Bridge Officers (navigators) and 16 Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) operators. Two testbeds were used to conduct the research in several full mission bridge simulators, and a virtual reality environment. A mixed methods approach, with a heavier focus on qualitative data, was adopted to understand the research problem. Methodological tools included literature reviews, observations, questionnaires, ship maneuvering data, collective interviews, think-aloud protocol, and consultation with subject matter experts. The data analysis included thematic analysis, subject matter expert consultation, and descriptive statistics.\ua0The results show that operators perceive that decision support will impact their work, but not necessarily as expected. The operators’ positive and negative perceptions are discussed within the frameworks of human-automation interaction, decision-making, and systems thinking. The results point towards gaps in work as it is intended to be done and work as it is done in the user’s context. A user-driven design framework is proposed which allows for a systematic, flexible, and iterative design process capable of testing new technologies while involving all stakeholders. These results have led to the identification of several research gaps in relation to the overall preparedness of the shipping industry to manage the evolution toward smarter ships. This thesis will discuss these findings and advocate for human-centered automation within the quickly evolving maritime industry

Using operational scenarios in a virtual reality enhanced design process

Maritime user interfaces for ships’ bridges are highly dependent on the context in which they are used, and rich maritime context is difficult to recreate in the early stages of user-centered design processes. Operations in Arctic waters where crews are faced with extreme environmental conditions, technology limitations and a lack of accurate navigational information further increase this challenge. There is a lack of research supporting the user-centered design of workplaces for hazardous Arctic operations. To meet this challenge, this paper reports on the process of developing virtual reality-reconstructed operational scenarios to connect stakeholders, end-users, designers, and human factors specialists in a joint process. This paper explores how virtual reality-reconstructed operational scenarios can be used as a tool both for concept development and user testing. Three operational scenarios were developed, implemented in a full mission bridge simulator, recreated in virtual reality (VR), and finally tested on navigators (end-users). Qualitative data were captured throughout the design process and user-testing, resulting in a thematic analysis that identified common themes reflecting the experiences gained throughout this process. In conclusion, we argue that operational scenarios, rendered in immersive media such as VR, may be an important and reusable asset when supporting maritime design processes and in maritime training and education

"Are You Planning to Follow Your Route?" The Effect of Route Exchange on Decision Making, Trust, and Safety

The Sea Traffic Management (STM) Validation project is a European based initiative which focuses on connecting and updating the maritime world in real time, with efficient information exchange. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate two functions developed during the project: a ship to ship route exchange (S2SREX) function and rendezvous (RDV) information layer, collectively referred to as S2SREX/RDV. S2SREX displays the route segment consisting of the next seven waypoints of the monitored route of a collaborating ship and the RDV layer that predicts a meeting point. S2SREX/RDV provides supplementary information to data acquired by existing navigation systems and is intended to improve situational awareness and safety through a more comprehensive understanding of the surrounding traffic. Chalmers University of Technology and Solent University completed an experiment using twenty-four experienced navigators in bridge simulators. Six traffic scenarios were developed by subject matter experts and tested with and without S2SREX/RDV functionalities. Qualitative data were collected using post-test questionnaires and group debriefs to evaluate the participants\u27 perceptions of S2SREX/RDV in the various traffic scenarios, and quantitative data were collected to assess the ship distances and behavior in relation to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs). The results revealed that participants generally trusted the S2SREX/RDV information, and most used S2SREX/RDV for decision support. The quantitative assessment revealed that the COLREGs were breached more often when S2SREX/RDV was used. Experimental findings are discussed in relation to safety, trust, reliance, situational awareness, and human-automation interaction constructs

Development of an augmented reality concept for icebreaker assistance and convoy operations

A vessel convoy is a complex and high‐risk operation completed during icebreaking operations in the Arctic. Icebreaker navigators need to continuously communicate with their crew while monitoring information such as speed, heading, and distance between vessels in the convoy. This paper presents an augmented reality user interface concept, which aims to support navigators by improving oversight and safety during convoy operations. The concept demonstrates how augmented reality can help to realize a situated user interface that adapts to user’s physical and operational contexts. The concept was developed through a human‐centered design process and tested through a virtual reality simulator in a usability study involving seven mariners. The results suggest that augmented reality has the potential to improve the safety of convoy operations by integrating distributed information with heads‐up access to operation‐critical information. However, the user interface concept is still novel, and further work is needed to develop the concept and safely integrate augmented reality into maritime operations

An evaluation of low-level automation navigation functions upon vessel traffic services work practices

The Sea Traffic Management (STM) Validation Project is a European-based initiative with ambitions to improve maritime safety and efficiency through information sharing in real time. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the “STM services,” which can be categorized as low-level automated functions designed to improve information exchange between ship and shore. Full-scale simulated scenarios were developed and tested on 16 professional vessel traffic service (VTS) operators comparing VTS operations as they are today with the added STM functionality. Data collection involved observations which assessed the frequency and type of interactions between ships and VTS, followed by questionnaires to provide an overall assessment of the user experience. The results indicate that the frequency and method of communication patterns between VTS operators and ships will be affected by the integration of the STM services. Additional access to navigational information could change the role of VTS operators in traffic situations compared with traditional operations. This paper discusses the findings from a socio-technical systems perspective while also addressing the individual STM services and their potential impact on VTS operations. This research provides valuable information for European VTS centers that could be affected by the implementation of e-Navigation and, specifically, the STM services

Operationalizing COLREGs in SMART ship navigation

The maritime industry is undergoing a transformation driven by digitalization and connectivity. The technological realization of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) presents significant challenges for the maritime human factors research community. These challenges relate to system design, human-automation interaction, stakeholder training, use and acceptance of new technology systems, and on a larger scale, how the regulatory framework, including the Collision Regulations (COLREGs) will be impacted within a MASS system. Decision support is the next step in the transformation towards more connected ships, however, such systems for navigation are largely unexplored from the users’ perspective.The decision support system studied in this project was developed by W\ue4rtsil\ue4 and is called Advanced Intelligent Manoeuvring (AIM), aligning with “low-level automation” or Level 1 (out of a 4-level progression) of MASS. AIM can generate suggestions for course or speed alterations based on data from surrounding traffic. A full-mission bridge simulator study was conducted at Chalmers University of Technology in Gothenburg, Sweden with nineteen Swedish navigators. Three traffic scenarios each with three ships were completed in both baseline (no AIM) and AIM conditions. A mixed methods data collection and analysis approach was employed using questionnaires, collective interviews, and an evaluation of the ship tracks. The results show that the navigators perceive AIM as an advisory tool, to visualize how traffic situations could unfold, an outcome currently difficult for most navigators to conceive. This report discusses the present and near future of the maritime sociotechnical system, highlighting the benefits of automation, while remaining vigilant about the potential dangers

Preventing Unruly Technologies in Maritime Navigation: A Systems Approach

The rapid development of artificial intelligence, big data, and automation have the potential to transform the maritime industry. While change is inevitable, automated solutions do not guarantee navigational safety, efficiency or improved seaway traffic management. This paper describes lessons learned throughout the Sea Traffic Management (STM) Validation project. The STM project tested low-level automation functions intended to enhance navigational safety and efficiency. The results indicate that although the additional information was useful, there may be a disruption in current working practices, and potential gaps in the existing regulatory framework, and training and skill development of future mariners. The aim of this paper is to argue for a systems approach to better understand and prevent technologies from becoming “unruly” in the maritime context. This approach will consider how the technologies impact various system elements to support a more safe and sustainable shipping industry

The human factor in the digital age

The shipping industry is traditional and conservative, with slow-moving regulatory body acting in a reactive manner often driven by major shipping disasters. However, moving into the digital age in the 4th IR does not exclude the shipping industry which now is facing a development towards smart and highly automated vessels driven by rapid technological developments. A fully autonomous electric powered container vessel can be a reality in 4 years. The transition into highly and fully autonomous vessels will change the seafarer as we now know them. No doubt, the traditional core knowledge described in the STCW Convention will still be valid for the future operators. The question is what else to they need to know and what skill sets do they need to have? This paper aims at discussing the challenges involved in preparing the future seafarers in their coming role in this digital age

Navigators’ views of a collision avoidance decision support system for maritime navigation

Maritime navigation is a complex task involving the acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of information using seamanship, professional knowledge, and technology. As the maritime industry transitions towards maritimeautonomous surface ships (MASS), there is an increasing gap between the operator and the technology. This paper explores a collision avoidance decision support system for navigation from the navigator’s perspective. The system, developed by W\ue4rtsil\ue4, is called Advanced Intelligent Manoeuvring (AIM) and can generate suggestions for course or speed alterations based on data from surrounding traffic. Nineteen Swedish navigators completed three ship traffic scenarios with and without decision support. Qualitative data were collected using interviews and analysed with thematic analysis. The results show that the participants perceive the decision support system as an advisory tool to visualise how traffic situations could unfold, a task currently difficult for most navigators. This paper discusses the present and near future of maritime navigation, highlighting the benefits of automation, whileremaining vigilant about the potential dangers